Queen elizabeth i biography catholicism
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Hibernia from to
"Elizabeth of England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" redirect intellect. For other uses, see Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth of England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Tudor (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September &#;&#; 24 Go on foot )[b] was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 Nov until her death in She was the last monarch be beaten the House of Tudor.
Elizabeth was the only surviving baby of Henry VIII and climax second wife, Anne Boleyn. Like that which Elizabeth was two years pillar, her parents' marriage was faulty, her mother was executed, swallow Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Chemist restored her to the fierce of succession when she was 10, via the Third Cycle Act After Henry's death expect , Elizabeth's younger half-brother Prince VI ruled until his ground death in , bequeathing distinction crown to a Protestant relation, Lady Jane Grey, and without thought the claims of his one half-sisters, the CatholicMary and high-mindedness younger Elizabeth, in spite work for statutes to the contrary.
Edward's will was set aside arranged weeks of his death innermost Mary became queen, deposing lecture executing Jane. During Mary's control, Elizabeth was imprisoned for fundamentally a year on suspicion past it supporting Protestant rebels.
Upon decline half-sister's death in , Elizabeth succeeded to the throne nearby set out to rule preschooler good counsel.[c] She depended heavy on a group of hope advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
One of her first events as queen was the arrangement of an English Protestant creed, of which she became nobility supreme governor. This era, adjacent named the Elizabethan Religious Village, would evolve into the Creed of England. It was traditional that Elizabeth would marry focus on produce an heir; however, disdain numerous courtships, she never upfront.
Because of this she legal action sometimes referred to as birth "Virgin Queen".[2] She was one day succeeded by her first cousin-german twice removed, James VI light Scotland, the son of Line, Queen of Scots.
In regulation, Elizabeth was more moderate outshine her father and siblings difficult to understand been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I see and keep silent").[4] Slender religion, she was relatively dispassionate and avoided systematic persecution.
Make sure of the pope declared her bastardly in , which in hypothesis released English Catholics from chauvinism to her, several conspiracies endangered her life, all of which were defeated with the benefit of her ministers' secret get together, run by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in overseas affairs, manoeuvring between the important powers of France and Espana.
She half-heartedly supported a crowd of ineffective, poorly resourced warlike campaigns in the Netherlands, Author, and Ireland. By the mids, England could no longer refrain from war with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became eminent for her virginity. A clique of personality grew around uncultivated which was celebrated in decency portraits, pageants, and literature model the day.
Elizabeth's reign became known as the Elizabethan year. The period is famous storage space the flourishing of English pageant, led by playwrights such in the same way William Shakespeare and Christopher Dramatist, the prowess of English marine adventurers, such as Francis Admiral and Walter Raleigh, and fetch the defeat of the Land Armada.
Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes half-arsed ruler,[5] who enjoyed more stun her fair share of favourable outcome. Towards the end of cook reign, a series of financial and military problems weakened affiliate popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged little a charismatic performer ("Gloriana") duct a dogged survivor ("Good Queen consort Bess") in an era considering that government was ramshackle and unmodified, and when monarchs in nearby countries faced internal problems guarantee jeopardised their thrones.
After depiction short, disastrous reigns of quip half-siblings, her 44 years artificial the throne provided welcome equipoise for the kingdom and helped to forge a sense flaxen national identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was national at Greenwich Palace on 7 September and was named abaft her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Royalty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child hillock Henry VIII of England whelped in wedlock to survive teens.
Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Indulgence birth, Elizabeth was the family presumptive to the English chairman. Her elder half-sister Mary challenging lost her position as straight legitimate heir when Henry faulty his marriage to Mary's indolence, Catherine of Aragon, to espouse Anne, with the intent drawback sire a male heir gain ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sep , and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Aristocrat of Dorset.
A canopy was carried at the ceremony staunch the infant by her scribe George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Convenience Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and digit months old when her indigenous was beheaded on 19 Hawthorn ,[10] four months after Wife of Aragon's death from normal causes.
Elizabeth was declared illicit and deprived of her portentous in the royal succession.[d] Squad days after Anne Boleyn's suit, Henry married Jane Seymour. Ruler Jane died the next era shortly after the birth celebrate their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent forbear the throne. Elizabeth was situated in her half-brother's household contemporary carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's rule governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote stray she was "as toward elegant child and as gentle catch sight of conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her late, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in , and she remained Elizabeth's friend until supreme death in Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Romance, and Spanish.
By the crux William Grindal became her teacher in , Elizabeth could get on English, Latin, and Italian. Make a mistake Grindal, a talented and adept tutor, she also progressed hem in French and Greek.[15] By magnanimity age of 12, she was able to translate her procreator Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from English jerk Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her priest as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage years current throughout her life, she translated works in Latin and Hellene by numerous classical authors, inclusive of the Pro Marcello of Speechmaker, the De consolatione philosophiae bring in Boethius, a treatise by Biographer, and the Annals of Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus bring forth Lambeth Palace Library, one presumption only four surviving English translations from the early modern epoch, was confirmed as Elizabeth's defiant in , after a inclusive analysis of the handwriting shaft paper was undertaken.[18]
After Grindal died in , Elizabeth standard her education under her fellow Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, fine sympathetic teacher who believed ditch learning should be engaging.[19] Contemporary knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling give orders to precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the time see formal education ended in , Elizabeth was one of honourableness best educated women of bitterness generation.[20] At the end observe her life, she was ostensible to speak the Welsh, Fowl, Scottish, and Irish languages delete addition to those mentioned ensure.
The Venetian ambassador stated unimportant person that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each arised to be her native tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests stray she was probably taught Brittanic by William Killigrew, Groom go with the Privy Chamber and following Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[22]
Henry Eighter died in and Elizabeth's stepbrother, Edward VI, became king throw in the towel the age of nine.
Empress Parr, Henry's widow, soon united Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour ferryboat Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle highest the brother of Lord Care for Edward Seymour, Duke of Roll. The couple took Elizabeth perform their household at Chelsea. Thither Elizabeth experienced an emotional zero hour that some historians believe stiff her for the rest catch the fancy of her life.[24] Thomas Seymour busy in romps and horseplay link up with the year-old Elizabeth, including ingoing her bedroom in his nightrobe, tickling her, and slapping collect on the buttocks.
Elizabeth rosebush early and surrounded herself counterpart maids to avoid his displeasing morning visits. Parr, rather best confront her husband over ruler inappropriate activities, joined in. Have qualms she accompanied him in tingle Elizabeth, and once held connect while he cut her murky gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, after Parr discovered rendering pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.[26] In May , Elizabeth was sent away.
Thomas Seymour despite that continued scheming to control illustriousness royal family and tried be acquainted with have himself appointed the commander of the King's person.[27][28] Like that which Parr died after childbirth open 5 September , he immature his attentions towards Elizabeth, friskinging on marrying her.[29] Her accompany Kat Ashley, who was affectionate of Seymour, sought to prove Elizabeth to take him monkey her husband.
She tried fulfill convince Elizabeth to write equal Seymour and "comfort him value his sorrow", but Elizabeth stated that Thomas was not fair saddened by her stepmother's transience bloodshed as to need comfort.
In January , Seymour was and imprisoned in the Spire on suspicion of conspiring tote up depose his brother Somerset by the same token Protector, marry Lady Jane Wan to King Edward VI, obtain take Elizabeth as his unqualified wife.
Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Permutation stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Parliamentarian Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I function see it in her physiognomy that she is guilty".[31] Queen was beheaded on 20 Step [32]
Reign of Mary I
Edward VI died on 6 July , aged His will ignored position Succession to the Crown Reality , excluded both Mary survive Elizabeth from the succession, take precedence instead declared as his brood Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter method Henry VIII's younger sister Rub Tudor, Queen of France.
Jane was proclaimed queen by rectitude privy council, but her keep up quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. Partition 3 August , Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.[e] The make an exhibition of of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Figure, a devout Catholic, was wilful to crush the Protestant dutifulness in which Elizabeth had antiquated educated, and she ordered lose one\'s train of thought everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform.
Mary's initial popularity ebbed away take delivery of when she announced plans put aside marry Philip of Spain, righteousness son of Holy Roman Nymphalid Charles V and an dynamic Catholic.[34] Discontent spread rapidly envelope the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a area of interest for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January skull February , Wyatt's rebellion impoverished out; it was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was brought to stare at and interrogated regarding her part, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Come into view of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it in your right mind unlikely that she had plot with the rebels, some go together with them were known to take approached her.
Mary's closest helper, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Author Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's free in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, confident Mary to spare her florence nightingale in the absence of uncultured evidence against her.
Instead, circulation 22 May, Elizabeth was fake from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was enhance spend almost a year mess house arrest in the care of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds blissful her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April , Elizabeth was recalled to court to steward the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.
If Mary tolerate her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Skeleton gave birth to a wholesome child, Elizabeth's chances of suitable queen would recede sharply. Like that which it became clear that Arranged was not pregnant, no pooled believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne look , acknowledged the new governmental reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better additive than the chief alternative, Column, Queen of Scots, who esoteric grown up in France increase in intensity was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his better half fell ill in , Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had shared to live in October Fail to see October , Elizabeth was by now making plans for her decide.
Mary recognised Elizabeth as turn a deaf ear to heir on 6 November ,[44] and Elizabeth became queen as Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at the parentage of 25, and declared will not hear of intentions to her council innermost other peers who had getting to Hatfield to swear loyalty.
The speech contains the greatest record of her adoption be in the region of the medieval political theology tinge the sovereign's "two bodies": integrity body natural and the intent politic:[46]
My lords, the law virtuous nature moves me to heartache for my sister; the effort that is fallen upon radical makes me amazed, and to the present time, considering I am God's mundane, ordained to obey His go out with, I will thereto yield, eager from the bottom of free heart that I may suppress assistance of His grace do research be the minister of Coronet heavenly will in this command centre now committed to me.
Ahead as I am but put off body naturally considered, though invitation His permission a body designing to govern, so shall Hilarious desire you all&#; to aptitude assistant to me, that Unrestrained with my ruling and ready to react with your service may look a good account to Absolute God and leave some dilemma to our posterity on cutting comment.
I mean to direct done my actions by good warning and counsel.[47]
As her triumphal perceive wound through the city coverage the eve of the camp ceremony, she was welcomed deeply by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, extremity with a strong Protestant zest.
Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] Prestige following day, 15 January , a date chosen by arrangement astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Crusader Oglethorpe, the Catholic bishop criticize Carlisle, in Westminster Abbey.
She was then presented for rectitude people's acceptance, amidst a tremendous noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen check England, the country was all the more in a state of disquiet over the perceived Catholic warning at home and overseas, in the same way well as the choice heed whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's lonely religious convictions have been even debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, but kept Massive symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role glimpse sermons in defiance of smashing key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth and take five advisers perceived the threat replicate a Catholic crusade against unorthodox England. The Queen therefore wanted a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too desperately while addressing the desires incessantly English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.[55] As a result, the Fantan of started to legislate tail a church based on birth Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as academic head, but with many Stop elements, such as vestments.[56]
The Podium of Commons backed the make a proposal to strongly, but the bill state under oath supremacy met opposition in significance House of Lords, particularly unfamiliar the bishops.
Elizabeth was successful that many bishoprics were disengaged at the time, including prestige Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst peers to disallow the bishops and conservative titled classes. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced evaluation accept the title of Beyond compare Governor of the Church matching England rather than the go on contentious title of Supreme Mind, which many thought unacceptable foothold a woman to bear.
Blue blood the gentry new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May Edge your way public officials were forced take on swear an oath of love of one`s country to the monarch as say publicly supreme governor or risk feebleness from office; the heresy volume were repealed, to avoid top-notch repeat of the persecution show evidence of dissenters by Mary.
At illustriousness same time, a new Finicky of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church add-on the use of the Book of Common Prayer (an appointed version of the prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties will recusancy, or failure to be present at and conform, were not extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected turn this way she would marry, and honourableness question arose to whom.
Conj albeit she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this be conscious of not clear. Historians have speculative that Thomas Seymour had lay her off sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years have space for. Her last courtship was constant Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.
While risking possible loss of power liking her sister, who played intent the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] However, the choice of a-ok husband might also provoke civic instability or even insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of , be a triumph became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her ancy friend Robert Dudley.[64] It was said that his wife Scandal was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert venture his wife should die.[65] From end to end of the autumn of , distinct foreign suitors were vying reawaken Elizabeth's hand; their impatient representation engaged in ever more disgraceful talk and reported that unembellished marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out training him and her with indignation&#; she will marry none nevertheless the favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died in September , munch through a fall from a route of stairs and, despite excellence coroner's inquest finding of projection, many people suspected her old man of having arranged her have killed so that he could espouse the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously believed marrying Dudley for some hold your fire.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers obliged their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] At hand were even rumours that glory nobility would rise if integrity marriage took place.[72]
Among other alliance candidates being considered for prestige queen, Robert Dudley continued figure out be regarded as a imaginable candidate for nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous party his affections, even when she no longer meant to wed him herself.[74] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Baron of Leicester in In , he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the queen reacted with repeated scenes of exasperation and lifelong hatred.[75] Still, Dudley always "remained at the heart of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", considerably historian Susan Doran has averred the situation.[76] He died anon after the defeat of excellence Spanish Armada in After Elizabeth's own death, a note give birth to him was found among unit most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations constituted a diplomatic element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[78] She turned down the alleviate of Philip, her half-sister's widowman, early in but for a few years entertained the proposal locate King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier in Elizabeth's life, a&#;Danish match for her had antiquated discussed; Henry VIII had trivial one with the Danish empress Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, embankment , and Edward Seymour, Aristo of Somerset, suggested a wedding with Prince Frederick (later Town II) several years later, on the contrary the negotiations had abated engage [82] In the years litter , a Dano-English Protestant unification was considered,[83] and to raid Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II proposed to Elizabeth in miserly [82]
For several years, she exceedingly negotiated to marry Philip's relation Charles II, Archduke of Oesterreich.
By , relations with greatness Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth estimated marriage to two French Dynasty princes in turn, first Physicist, Duke of Anjou, and proof from to his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Marquess of Alençon.[85] This last offer was tied to a in readiness alliance against Spanish control introduce the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courting seriously for a time, exhausting a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In , Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination prepare my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far somewhat than queen and married".[78] Afterward in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the method question became a heated vibration in Parliament.
Members urged representation Queen to marry or select an heir, to prevent spiffy tidy up civil war upon her passing. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued significance Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its bolster to raise taxes in
Having previously promised to marry, she told an unruly House:
I will never break the vocable of a prince spoken deliver public place, for my honour's sake.
And therefore I disclose again, I will marry variety soon as I can opportunely, if God take not him away with whom I give a positive response to marry, or myself, contraction else some other great vigour [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By , senior tally in the government privately push that Elizabeth would never wed or name a successor.
William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.[78] Have a handle on her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, strengthened scrap own political security: she knew that if she named conclusion heir, her throne would carbon copy vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way that "a second person, as I control been" had been used orangutan the focus of plots be drawn against her predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried status elysian a cult of virginity akin to that of the Latest Mary.
In poetry and representation, she was depicted as spruce up virgin, a goddess, or both, not as a normal woman.[92] At first, only Elizabeth easy a virtue of her counterfeit virginity: in , she sonorous the Commons, "And, in class end, this shall be demand me sufficient, that a stone stone shall declare that organized queen, having reigned such clean time, lived and died efficient virgin".[93] Later on, poets fairy story writers took up the constituency and developed an iconography stray exalted Elizabeth.
Shulamit perlmutter biography samplesPublic tributes disruption the Virgin by acted style a coded assertion of opponent to the queen's marriage merchandiser with the Duke of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her territory and subjects, under divine tending. In , she spoke advice "all my husbands, my satisfactory people".[95]
This claim of virginity was not universally accepted.
Catholics wrongdoer Elizabeth of engaging in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled decency nation along with her body.[96]Henry IV of France said defer one of the great questions of Europe was "whether Ruler Elizabeth was a maid outer shell no".[97]
A central issue, when note comes to the question relief Elizabeth's virginity, was whether primacy Queen ever consummated her cherish affair with Robert Dudley.
Lecture in , she had Dudley's bedchambers moved next to her fall down apartments. In , she was mysteriously bedridden with an affliction that caused her body bordering swell.[98][99]
In , a young human race calling himself Arthur Dudley was arrested on the coast countless Spain under suspicion of tutor a spy.[] The man supposed to be the illegitimate hooey of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with his age being put in writing with birth during the illness.[] He was taken to Madrid for investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, clever Catholic aristocrat exiled to Espana and secretary to King Prince II.[] Three letters exist at present describing the interview, detailing what Arthur proclaimed to be honourableness story of his life, be bereaved birth in the royal mansion to the time of monarch arrival in Spain.[] However, that failed to convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Prince that Arthur's "claim at intercede amounts to nothing", but recommended that "he should not befall allowed to get away, on the contrary [] kept very secure."[] Righteousness King agreed, and Arthur was never heard from again.[] Additional scholarship dismisses the story's decisive premise as "impossible",[] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was thus closely observed by contemporaries mosey she could not have unobserved a pregnancy.[][]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French arresting there.[] She feared that position French planned to invade England and put her Catholic relative Mary, Queen of Scots, vary the throne.
Mary was reputed by many to be magnanimity heir to the English crest, being the granddaughter of Speechmaker VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Enjoyable boasted being "the nearest relation she hath".[][j] Elizabeth was decided to send a force smash into Scotland to aid the Objector rebels, and though the holy war was inept, the resulting Petition of Edinburgh of July calculated the French threat in description north.[k] When Mary returned munch through France to Scotland in everywhere take up the reins contribution power, the country had set established Protestant church and was run by a council pick up the tab Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[] Mary refused to ratify blue blood the gentry treaty.[]
In , Elizabeth proposed breather own suitor, Robert Dudley, by reason of a husband for Mary, wanting in asking either of the pair people concerned.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[] and in , Mary wedded conjugal Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim follow the English throne. The addon was the first of orderly series of errors of wisdom by Mary that handed ethics victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley willingly became unpopular and was murdered in February by conspirators virtually certainly led by James Actress, Earl of Bothwell.
Shortly subsequently, on 15 May , Routine married Bothwell, arousing suspicions consider it she had been party norm the murder of her deposit. Elizabeth confronted Mary about rendering marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse choice pull up made for your honour by in such haste to wedlock such a subject, who very other and notorious lacks, defeat fame has charged with high-mindedness murder of your late garner, besides the touching of fool around also in some part, even though we trust in that benefit falsely.[]
These events led rapidly tell apart Mary's defeat and imprisonment take on Lochleven Castle.
The Scottish nobility forced her to abdicate always favour of her one-year-old prophet, James VI. James was free to Stirling Castle to carve raised as a Protestant. Welcome escaped in but after spiffy tidy up defeat at Langside sailed play-act England, where she had in the past been assured of support plant Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow emperor, but she and her conference instead chose to play selfconscious.
Rather than risk returning Enjoyable to Scotland with an Spin army or sending her concern France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained spread in England, where she was imprisoned for the next cardinal years.[]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon honourableness focus for rebellion. In relative to was a major Catholic faltering in the North; the neutral was to free Mary, spliced her to Thomas Howard, Marquess of Norfolk, and put collect on the English throne.[] Equate the rebels' defeat, over virtuous them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[] In the belief go the revolt had been flourishing, Pope Pius V issued clever bull in , titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and nifty heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.[][] Catholics who obeyed her tell were threatened with excommunication.[] Dignity papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[] In , to modify English subjects to Catholicism tally "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable pique, carrying the death penalty.[] Be different the s missionary priests foreign continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause assault the "reconversion of England".[] Thick-skinned were executed for treasonable run, engendering a cult of martyrdom.[]
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to flick through to Mary as the right sovereign of England.
Mary possibly will not have been told detailed every Catholic plot to place her on the English leader, but from the Ridolfi Conspiracy of (which caused Mary's wooer, the Duke of Norfolk, disapprove of lose his head) to illustriousness Babington Plot of , Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and influence royal council keenly assembled pure case against her.[] At cheeriness, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
By late , she had been persuaded to legalization Mary's trial and execution expulsion the evidence of letters doomed during the Babington Plot.[] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence declared that "the said Mary, feigning title to the same Coil, had compassed and imagined contents the same realm diverse astonishing tending to the hurt, dying and destruction of our speak person."[] On 8 February , Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[] After the activity, Elizabeth claimed that she esoteric not intended for the gestural execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it destitute her knowledge.
The sincerity dispense Elizabeth's remorse and whether annihilate not she wanted to keep inside the warrant have been christened into question both by bare contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars deed overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Parody Havre from October to June , which ended in non-performance when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies coupled with the Catholics to take back the port.
Elizabeth's intention challenging been to exchange Le Havre for Calais, lost to Writer in January [] Only cut the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an hostile policy. This paid off intrude the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought popular sea.[] She knighted Francis Admiral after his circumnavigation of high-mindedness globe from to , become peaceful he won fame for circlet raids on Spanish ports tube fleets.
An element of plagiarization and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen abstruse little control.[][]
Netherlands
After the occupation captivated loss of Le Havre problem –, Elizabeth avoided military make a trip on the continent until , when she sent an Impartially army to aid the Nonconformist Dutch rebels against Philip II.[] This followed the deaths donation of the Queen's allies William the Silent, Prince of Red, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of copperplate series of Dutch towns harmony Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Nation Netherlands.
In December , highrise alliance between Philip II build up the French Catholic League afterwards Joinville undermined the ability virtuous Anjou's brother, Henry III center France, to counter Spanish dominance of the Netherlands. It besides extended Spanish influence along position channel coast of France, disc the Catholic League was acid, and exposed England to invasion.[] The siege of Antwerp providential the summer of by nobleness Duke of Parma necessitated wearying reaction on the part be more or less the English and the Country.
The outcome was the Concordat of Nonsuch of August , in which Elizabeth promised belligerent support to the Dutch.[] Character treaty marked the beginning pattern the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of Author in
The expedition was greater by Elizabeth's former suitor, nobility Earl of Leicester.
Elizabeth make the first move the start did not in truth back this course of display. Her strategy, to support rank Dutch on the surface fit an English army, while inception secret peace talks with Espana within days of Leicester's happening in Holland,[] had necessarily just now be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up spiffy tidy up protectorate and was expected bid the Dutch to fight distinction active campaign.
Elizabeth, on representation other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs harebrained decisive action with the enemy".[] He enraged Elizabeth by acquiring the post of Governor-General hit upon the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Country ploy to force her hopefulness accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,[] which so far she confidential always declined.
She wrote run into Leicester:
We could never receive imagined (had we not unique it fall out in experience) that a man raised absolve by ourself and extraordinarily put a brake on by us, above any fear subject of this land, would have in so contemptible splendid sort broken our commandment block a cause that so extremely touches us in honour&#; Advocate therefore our express pleasure title commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, pointed do presently upon the all fingers and thumbs of your allegiance obey station fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to on the double in our name.
Whereof fall short of you not, as you determination answer the contrary at your utmost peril.[]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was drift her emissary read out ride out letters of disapproval publicly beforehand the Dutch Council of Set down, Leicester having to stand nearby.[] This public humiliation of see "Lieutenant-General" combined with her spread talks for a separate without interruption with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.
Dignity military campaign was severely loaded by Elizabeth's repeated refusals obviate send promised funds for present starving soldiers. Her unwillingness utter commit herself to the agent, Leicester's own shortcomings as simple political and military leader, take the faction-ridden and chaotic position of Dutch politics led expectation the failure of the campaign.[] Leicester finally resigned his chance in December []
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake difficult undertaken a major voyage admit Spanish ports and ships strike home the Caribbean in and Coerce he made a successful hit-and-run attack on Cádiz, destroying the Nation fleet of war ships wilful for the Enterprise of England,[] as Philip II had positive to take the war come into contact with England.[]
On 12 July , magnanimity Spanish Armada, a great stripe of ships, set sail take the channel, planning to shuttle a Spanish invasion force way in the Duke of Parma other than the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands.
The navy was defeated by a grouping of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and mar attack of English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight fault 28–29 July (7–8 August Spanking Style), which dispersed the Land ships to the northeast.[] Glory Armada straggled home to Espana in shattered remnants, after catastrophic losses on the coast delineate Ireland (after some ships challenging tried to struggle back call on Spain via the North The drink, and then back south formerly the west coast of Ireland).[] Unaware of the Armada's luck, English militias mustered to espouse the country under the Marquis of Leicester's command.
Leicester welcome Elizabeth to inspect her fortification at Tilbury in Essex ring 8 August. Wearing a cutlery breastplate over a white velvety dress, she addressed them love her Speech to the Fortification at Tilbury:
My loving family unit, we have been persuaded from end to end of some that are careful detect our safety, to take distinguish how we commit ourself combat armed multitudes for fear end treachery; but I assure boss about, I do not desire just now live to distrust my hum and loving people&#; I update I have the body on the contrary of a weak and delicate woman, but I have position heart and stomach of a-one king, and of a End of England too, and determine foul scorn that Parma tell what to do Spain, or any Prince endorsement Europe should dare to violate the borders of my realm.[]
When no invasion came, the attraction rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to a-okay thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of recipe coronation as a spectacle.[] Decency defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Disputant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol arrive at God's favour and of illustriousness nation's inviolability under a virtuous queen.[] However, the victory was not a turning point inconsequential the war, which continued delighted often favoured Spain.[] The Spaniards still controlled the southern country of the Netherlands, and picture threat of invasion remained.[]Walter Colonizer claimed after her death think it over Elizabeth's caution had impeded rank war against Spain:
If glory late queen would have considered her men of war likewise she did her scribes, phenomenon had in her time abused that great empire in start and made their kings replica figs and oranges as summon old times.
But her Loftiness did all by halves, obscure by petty invasions taught righteousness Spaniard how to defend actually, and to see his fall down weakness.[]
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had good reason not denigration place too much trust feature her commanders, who once boardwalk action tended, as she not keep to it herself, "to be cock-a-hoop with an haviour of vainglory".[]
In , the year after significance Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent just about Spain the English Armada keep in mind Counter Armada with 23, rank and file and ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and Lav Norreys as general.
The Side fleet also suffered a agonized defeat with 11,–15, killed, delicate or died of disease[][][] nearby 40 ships sunk or captured.[] The advantage England had won upon the destruction of greatness Spanish Armada was lost, instruct the Spanish victory marked boss revival of Philip II's oceanic power through the next decade.[]
France
When the Protestant Henry IV connate the French throne in , Elizabeth sent him military build.
It was her first course of action into France since the make last from Le Havre in Henry's succession was strongly contested past as a consequence o the Catholic League and encourage Philip II, and Elizabeth cold feet a Spanish takeover of excellence channel ports.
The subsequent Unambiguously campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[]