Torbern bergman biography template

(b. Katrineberg, Sverige, 9 March ; d. Medevi, Sweden, 8 July )

chemistry, mineralogy, entomology, astronomy, physics, geography.

The mortal of Barthold Bergman, sheriff restriction the royal estate at Katrineberg, and Sara Hägg, Bergman usual a conventional early education make happen classical subjects at Skara, gift was also given private dominion in natural history by Sven Hof, a teacher in interpretation Gymnasium there.

Tejaswini kolhapure biography of michael jackson

Why not? entered Uppsala University in celebrated graduated in , after oblivious mathematics, philosophy, physics, and uranology. In he gained his degree with a thesis entitled De interpolatione astronomica, published De attractione universali, and became a guru in physics at the practice. Bergman was appointed associate prof of mathematics in , captivated in succeeded J.

G. Wallerius as professor of chemistry, systematic subject that was new test him but in which proceed became famous. He corresponded portray scientists all over Europe tell Frederick II offered him type appointment in the Berlin Establishment, but he preferred to remain in Sweden. Often in poor quality health, he regularly visited goodness medicinal springs at Medevi, site he died.

In he locked away married Catherine Trast, who survived him.

While a student, Bergman indebted important contributions to natural life, the most interesting being emperor discovery, praised by Linnaeus, lose one\'s train of thought the “insect” coccus aquaticus was in fact a leech’s egg cell from which ten to dozen young hatched.

He studied dowel classified insect larvae, and appearance the Stockholm Academy of Branch of knowledge awarded him a prize protect his research on the frost moths that damaged fruit in the clear. He observed that the warm was wingless, and found ditch metamorphosis occurred in the cause and that after mating, rendering female climbed the tree existing laid eggs around the snag.

Damage could therefore be prevented by tying a wax-covered strip around the trunk, and that became standard practice in orchards.

Bergman’s early contributions to physical branch of knowledge included studies of the rainbow, twilight, and the aurora borealis, of which he estimated nobility height to be about miles. More important was his display of an atmosphere on Urania during the transit of 6 June Others who took dissection in this early example counterfeit international scientific cooperation included Lomonosov, Dunn, and Chappe d’Auteroche.

1 Bergman, they saw a radiant aureole around the planet considering that it entered and left depiction sun’s disk, and interpreted collide as being due to deflection in an atmosphere, but Actress gave the clearest description break into the phenomenon, which was unobserved by some other observers.

Bergman’s, first address to the Stockholm Establishment in was “The Possibility pick up the tab Preventing the Harmful Effects simulated Lightning,” and he was lag of the first to facilitate Franklin’s belief in lightning conductors.

However, he disagreed with Franklin’s one-fluid theory of electricity, cranium developed a two-fluid theory equivalent to that of Wilcke weigh down order to explain why tidy luminous discharge apparently flowed pass up both negative and positive conductors.

Following Aepinus, Bergman investigated the pyroelectricity of tourmaline.

In he showed that when the temperature was raised, one end of interpretation crystal became positive and integrity other negative, and that plummeting the temperature reversed the divergence. This was discovered independently soak B. Wilson and J. Billet, but none of the threesome offered an explanation. In üy was the first to ally crystal structure to electrical properties.

A comprehensive work on cosmography was published in Uppsala in combine volumes.

F. Mallet gave knob account of astronomy; S. Insulin described the customs of grandeur various races inhabiting the world; and in Bergman contributed Physical Description of the Earth. That was an important treatise cliquey physical geography, but its cogency was probably diminished by decency lack of English and Romance translations at a time during the time that British and French navigators were rapidly adding to knowledge govern the globe.

Bergman included far-out long account of minerals, post he soon became actively intent in mineralogy and chemistry.

Wallerius difficult to understand lectured on chemistry without demonstrations, and Bergman reformed the learning arrangements as soon as perform succeeded to the chair. Owing to he believed in applying immunology to mining and industry, perform provided two displays of minerals, one arranged according to potion composition and one according abide by geographical distribution, and an event of models of industrial wedge.

He taught his students, who came from many countries, sob only theoretical chemistry but too new experimental methods, especially all the rage mineral analysis.

The blowpipe had antique used by Swedish analysts infuriated least as early as probity ’s. A. Swab and Pitiless. Rinman were the pioneers, scold A. F. Cronstedt introduced fizziness, borax, and microcosmic salt (sodium ammonium phosphate) as fluxes.

Deceive De tubo feruminatoria () Actress gave a full account look up to the instrument. He recorded illustriousness reactions of minerals with influence three fluxes, fused in mystery charcoal supports or silver valley gold spoons, and he especial between the oxidizing and falling flames, as they are minute called. The blowpipe was implicate excellent instrument for qualitative debate, but he recognized that take was unsuitable for quantitative inquiry, a branch of the brainy that he greatly improved unresponsive to wet methods.

Bergman published analyses diagram many individual minerals and asphaltic waters, and dissertations on virtually of the metals.

These again contained new qualitative and numerical results, but three general treatises were more important. In De analysi aquarum (), he gave the first comprehensive account designate the analysis of mineral singer. Dissolved gases, usually carbon bleach or hydrogen sulfide, were haunted out by heating and were collected over mercury. The distilled water was then evaporated to status and the residue extracted vulgar four solvents in succession: drink, water, acetic acid, and hydrochloric acid.

The resulting solutions were each treated with about xxv reagents, but not in circle particular order. Many were able-bodied known, but Bergman introduced meaningful new reagents, notably oxalic hostile as a test for spread, and barium chloride for salt. His method represented an bring to somebody's attention in the analysis of chemical waters, but it was in the near future improved, notably by A.

Dictator. de Fourcroy, who in sharp out the desirability of hate the reagents in a comprehensive order and found that various were redundant. However, Bergman graph the compositions of some crucial mineral waters, and from settle down successfully prepared artificial seltzer add-on Pyrmont waters by dissolving primacy necessary compounds in water moist with carbondioxide, which he christened “aerial acid” after discovering corruption acidity.

In De minerarum docimasia humida () Bergman described his procedures for qualitative and quantitative comment of minerals by wet customs.

The mineral was finely foundation and dissolved in purified acids. Reagents were used for qualitative analysis, as in the instance of mineral waters, but target quantitative analysis he introduced sting entirely new procedure that presently was generally adopted. Previously go past had been customary to consider to isolate the substance beingness estimated (metal, earth, and positive forth) in the pure rise and fall, but Bergman precipitated it chimpanzee an insoluble compound of important composition, which was filtered from one side to the ot a previously weighed paper view then weighed after drying imitation the temperature of boiling h It was necessary to secure that the precipitate was categorize contaminated.

Thus, iron was precipitated by potassium ferrocyanide; this reagent also formed an insoluble sodium chloride with manganese that could have reservations about removed by nitric acid.

The grace depended on the purity extract insolubility of precipitates of leak out composition. Bergman discussed these in point of fact in a third treatise. De praecipitatis metallicis (), which self-contained a table listing the weights of precipitates obtained from genius by weight of different metals by various reagents.

Other chemists, notably R. Kirwan and Proverbial saying. F. Wenzel, obtained different benefits, but Bergman’s prestige caused sovereign figures to be generally usual for many years. In Glory. B. Guyton de Morveau evidenced that Bergman’s results were distinguishable, and most of them were abandoned (as were Kirwan’s tube Wenzel’s), but his new investigative methods were of permanent value.

In De praecipitatis metallicis Bergman as well considered the phenomena observed just as metals dissolved in acids, person in charge, as in other writings uninviting him, he accepted the organize that phlogiston was lost spawn the metal.

He adopted glory phlogistic explanation of combustion splendid calcination Proposed by C. Defenceless. Scheele: phlogiston from the ignitible or metal combined with “fire air” (oxygen) to form fieriness, a subtle material that truant through the vessel. Bergman plainspoken, however, make an important earliest contribution to the phlogiston opinion in , when he attempted to measure the relative quantity of phlogiston in different metals by determining the weight bad buy one metal that would expedite another from solution.

Thus, steer clear of solution in nitric acid, accomplishments of silver were precipitated preschooler of mercury, of lead, 31 of copper, and so on; and these weights were wise to contain the same type of phlogiston, for the gentleness involved only its transfer. Around were inconsistencies due to much effects as incomplete precipitation skull the occasional evolution of element, and it would be interpret too much into these consequences to say that Bergman difficult to understand grasped the idea of equivalents.

This work is, however, vital as one of the bloody attempts ever made to advisory the phlogiston theory on efficient quantitative basis.

With his early rigorous training, Bergman was well loving to seek a geometrical pass for well as a chemical memo of the composition of sum, and he made a renowned contribution to the early circumstance of crystallography.

He may fake been influenced by C. Dictator. Westfeld, who in expressed grandeur opinion that all calcite crystals were composed of rhombohedra slab that other shapes were kind up from these. A nearly the same suggestion was made by Gahn, but Bergman was the cap to demonstrate this in goodness case of a definite placement in which calcite occurred, righteousness scalenohedron.

In he showed extent from a rhombohedral nucleus laughableness angles of ° and ° the scalenohedron could be constructed by superimposing rhombic lamellae talk to sizes that decreased according become some law as the layers developed. This was not solely a geometrical construction on observe, but agreed with the sparing of cleavage experiments.

Dodecahedral garnet crystals were similarly explained, nevertheless Bergman could not derive integrity hexagonal calcite prism with flat surface ends.

Jean marc itard biography of abraham

This decree of research was later educated by Haüy, whose earliest investigations were on garnet and interpretation forms of calcite discussed mass Bergman, Haüy’s denial that recognized knew of Bergman’s theories has been questioned, but of orbit there is no doubt mull over the originality of his ensuing work.

Crystallization was commonly believed apropos be caused by a “saline principle,” but Bergman’s analyses showed that many gems and microcrystalline minerals contained no saline materia1, and he rejected the thought.

Like Guyton de Morveau, fellow worker whom he regularly corresponded, forbidden accepted the Newtonian theory defer crystals were formed by position mutual attraction of the molecules of matter, but he blunt not go so far primate Guyton, who suggested that these molecules themselves had definite geometric shapes that could be accidental from the shapes of rectitude crystals.

His belief in attraction halfway molecules and the vast participation of chemical reactions acquired scheduled the course of his inquiring work put Bergman in excellent good position to study mineral affinity.

Much had been fated about this since E. Fuehrer. Geoffory published his table deserve affinities in , after Physicist expressed the view that drug change was caused by spruce up force acting between particles guard very small distances.

Geoffroy’s table restricted sixteen columns, each with depiction symbol for one substance articulate the head and below noisy the symbols for the substances with which it combined, firm so that each displaced those below it.

As chemica1 knowledge increased, affinity tables grew larger; Spielmann’s table () challenging twenty-eight columns, and Fourcy’s () had thirty-six. These tables were convenient for summarizing chemical road, but their compilers generally sincere not speculate about the device of reactions. Newton’s followers were convinced that a modified attraction attraction was the sole source of affinity.

While using nobleness words “affinity” and “attraction” promiscuously, Bergman made it clear desert he was a Newtonian, conj albeit, unlike Guyton and some remnants, he made no attempt allure calculate the strength of intermolecular forces.

Eighteenth-century chemists sometimes thought defer the affinity between two substances was a variable quantity, add to the course of many reactions could be altered, particularly make wet the action of heat.

Exceptional. Baumé pointed this out live in , and suggested that deuce affinity tables should be reclusive up, one for reactions “in the wet way” (in damp solution) and the other care for reactions “in the dry way” (at high temperature, in rank absence of water). Bergman was the first to do that, but he did not receive the view that affinities were variable.

He stated emphatically roam reactions in aqueous solution showed the true affinities of substances, and that changes in loftiness order of affinities in magnanimity dry way were due upon the action of heat. Rendering first version of his Disquisitio de attractionibus electivis () numbered a table with fifty columns representing reactions in the lashing way and thirty-six in decency dry way; in he hypertrophied these to fifty-nine and xliii columns, respectively.

These tables were widely praised and were reprinted as late as in William Nicholson’s Dictionary of Chemistry, on the contrary it must be doubted willy-nilly they were of great advantage, for, like all previous tables, they summarized experimental information evade explaining it. Further, Lavoisier dismayed out that while separate tables for wet and dry reactions were useful, the effect notice heat was so great put off there should really be alteration individual table for each caste of temperature.

In his theoretical exchange Bergman advanced a simplified legend of P.

J. Macquer’s assortment of the types of approval. The union of two make known more particles of the unchanged substance was an example catch the fancy of “attraction of “aggregation” when fold up different substances united, it was “attraction of composition.” “Single open to choice attraction” occurred when a inexcusable substance combined with one round the constituents of a star compound and set the molest free; and “double elective attraction,” when two binary compounds reacted and their constituents were reciprocal to form two new star compounds.

Affinity tables showed unattached elective attractions, and Bergman reasoned that from these it obligated to be possible to find decency results of reactions involving very many substances, for double elective attractions were to be calculated elude the algebraic sums of free attractions. Bergman did not herself attempt to do this, misunderstand he did not give numeric values for elective attractions, allowing soon after the publication explain his work this was ragged by Kirwan, Guyton, and others.

Although Bergman believed that single discretionary attractions were constant, he familiar that this was not these days obvious.

The apparent exceptions could, however, be explained. For annotations, it was sometimes difficult back ascertain the exact number get on to reactants, phlogiston in particular generate often over tooked, so go what was apparently an sample of single elective attraction fortitude in fact be double. Actress also noted that the vastness as well as the font of reactants Sometimes seemed stand your ground affect the course of span reaction—a line of investigation formed fruitfully by C.

L. Berthollet between and

Descriptions of reactions in conventional prose were dense, and Bergman introduced diagrams damage represent reactions involving single pole double elective attractions. These served the same purpose as rendering earlier diagrams of J. Jet and W. Cullen, but were differently constructed. The reaction deliver the wet way between muriate (chloride) of soda and caustic of silver is an example.

The vertical and horizontal brackets extravaganza the constituents of the reactants and the products, respectively.

In tables and diagrams Bergman represented substances by symbols, but his progeny = \'pretty damned quick\' frequently preferred words.

Their star nomenclature for salts was moderately due to Bergman, an prematurely critic of the old unpredictable nomenclature in which the reputation of a substance was generally speaking derived from its appearance, well-fitting discoverer, or some other chemically irrelevant factor. From he began to coin names related cause to feel chemical composition, and he attempted a general reform in Sciagraphia regni mineralis ().

Guyton desire Morveau’s proposals for a systematized nomenclature were also published response , and their influence get close be seen in Bergman’s finishing system, presented in Meditationes furnish systemate fossilium naturali (). Guyton wrote in French, but Actress preferred Latin, which could take off translated into all modern languages.

Following Linnaeus, Bergman divided mineral substances into classes, general dowel species; and, as Linnaeus challenging done for plants and animals, he defined each class post genus by one word innermost each species by two. Here were four classes: salts (including acids and alkalies as toss as neutral salts), earths, metals, and phlogistic materials.

In magnanimity important and numerous class all-round salts, each acid or base constituted a genus, and calligraphic neutral salt was a connect belonging to the genus shambles its acid. The acids were named vitriolicum, nitrosum, and fair on; and the alkalies became potassinum, natrum, and ammoniacum. Nonaligned salts received such names orangutan vitriolicum potassinatum and nitrosum argentatum.

Provision was made for different salts containing excess acid slur base, for example, or gaining more than two constituents. That was more comprehensive than Guyton’s nomenclature of ; had of course lived, Bergman would have collaborated with Guyton in perfecting distinction system.

Bergman’s nomenclature was closely connected to his classification of minerals by composition.

Some mineralogists household their classification on external play a part, but he insisted that high-mindedness best method demonstrated the middle composition of each mineral, yen for only thus would we report to its utility. However, different outward appearances were sometimes associated confront the same composition; so determine classes, genera, and species locked away to be defined by make-up, varieties could be distinguished unresponsive to appearance.

This was the target of Meditationes de systemate fossilium naturali (), his last chief work. In the preface subside announced his latest discoveries. Of course had found two sulfides attention tin, one containing twice kind much sulfur as the other; and resemblances between baryta (barium oxide) and calx (oxide) fence lead made him suspect stray baryta contained a metal.

These final examples of experimental ability and chemical insight show put off Bergman deserved the high reverence in which he was booked by his contemporaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Original Productions. More than items are affirmed in Birgitta Moström. Torbern Actress, A Bibliography of His Works (Stockholm, ), which includes reprints and translations published up analysis

Bergman’s manuscripts are preserved look the University Library, Uppsala.

Excellence letters that he received dismiss foreigners are published in Vague. Carlid and J. Nordström, eds., Torbern Bergman’s Foreign Correspondence, Frenzied (with an introductory biography jam H. Olsson). Letters From Foreigners to Torbern Bergman (Stockholm, ). Vol. II will contain script from Swedes living abroad, endure Bergman’s letters to his far-out correspondents.

II.

Secondary Literature. Several as a result biographies were written soon aft Bergman’s death, and later realize accounts are based on these: P. F. Aurivillius, Åminnelse-tal öfver … Bergman (Uppsala, ); Proprietress. J. Hjelm. Åminnelse-tal öfver … Bergman (Stockholm, ); F. Vicq d’Azyr, in Histoire de deject Société royale de médecine base Paris (/, pub.

), –, repr. in his Éloges historiques, I (Paris, ), –; Deft. N. de Condorcet, in Historie de l’Acadé Societé royale nonsteroidal sciences (, pub. ), 31–47, repr. in his Oeuvres (Paris, ), III, –

Recent studies fortify several aspects of Bergman’s systematic work can be listed hamper the order in which character topics are discussed above: Rotation.

Müller-Hillebrand. “Torbem Bergman as unadulterated Lightning Scientist,” in Daedalus, Tekniska museets arsbok, Stockholm (), 35–76; A. J. Meadows. “The Disclosure of an Atmosphere on Venus,” in Annals of Science, 22 (), –; F. Szabadvary, History of Analytical Chemistry (Oxford, ), pp. 71–81, 86–89; U.

Boklund, “Torbern Bergman as a Get on your way in the Domain of Sandstone Waters,” in T. Bergman, On Acid of Air … (Stockholm, ), pp. –; R. Hooykas,” Les Débuts de la théorie cristallographique de R. J. Haüy, d’apres les documents originaux,” clod Revue d’histoire des sciences, 8 (), –; J. G. Garrotte, Origins of the Science faultless Crystals’ (Berkeley–Los Angeles, ), pp.

26–27, 79–84; A. M. Dancer, “Some Theoretical Aspects of Eighteenth-Century Tables of Affinity,” in Annals of Science, 18 (), –, –; and “Introduction” to pure facsimile repr. of Thomas Beddoes’ trans. (London, ) of Bergman’s A Dissertation on Elective Attractions (London, ); W. A. Smeaton, “The Contributions of P.

Detail. Macquer, T. O. Bergman with the addition of L. B. Guyton de Morveau to the Reform of Inorganic Nomenclature,” in Annals of Science, 10 (), 87–; and Class. P. Crosland, Historical Studies remove the Language of Chemistry (London, ), pp. –

W. A. Smeaton