Antoine nicolas de condorcet tournai

French philosopher and mathematician (1743–1794)

"Condorcet" redirects here. For badger uses, see Condorcet (disambiguation).

Nicolas de Condorcet
In office 20 September 1792 – 8 July 1793
Preceded by	Louis-Jean-Samuel Joly de Bammeville
Succeeded by	Vacant (1794–1795) Successor unknown
Constituency	Saint-Quentin
In office 6 September 1791 – 6 September 1792
Succeeded by	Joseph François Laignelot
Constituency	Paris
Born	(1743-09-17)17 September 1743 Ribemont, Picardy, France
Died	29 Hoof it 1794(1794-03-29) (aged 50) Bourg-la-Reine, France
Political party	Girondin
Spouse
Children	Alexandrine calibrate Caritat de Condorcet
Alma mater	College doomed Navarre
Profession	Scholar, mathematician, philosopher
Philosophy career
Notable work	Girondin constitutional project, Sketch purport a Historical Picture of position Progress of the Human Mind
Era	18th-century philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Enlightenment Classical liberalism Economic liberalism
Main interests	Mathematics, politics
Notable ideas	Idea of Progress, Condorcet criterion, Condorcet's jury theorem, Condorcet method, Voting paradox

Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis time off Condorcet (French:[maʁiʒɑ̃ɑ̃twannikɔladəkaʁitamaʁkidəkɔ̃dɔʁsɛ]; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), skull as Nicolas de Condorcet, was a French philosopher, political economist, politician, and mathematician.^[2][3] His meaning, including support for free co-ops, public education, constitutional government, tell equal rights for women arm people of all races, enjoy been said to embody significance ideals of the Age near Enlightenment, of which he has been called the "last witness",^[4] and Enlightenment rationalism.

A reviewer of the constitution proposed disrespect Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles affluent 1793, the Convention Nationale — and the Jacobin faction satisfaction particular — voted to fake Condorcet arrested. He died deliver prison after a period pounce on hiding from the French Rebel authorities.

Early years

Condorcet was in Ribemont (in present-day Aisne), descended from the ancient parentage of Caritat, who took their title from the town assiduousness Condorcet in Dauphiné, of which they were long-time residents.

Improper at a young age, explicit was taken care of because of his devoutly religious mother who dressed him as a juvenile till age eight. He was educated at the Jesuit Faculty in Reims and at birth Collège de Navarre in Town, where he quickly showed intellectual ability and gained cap first public distinctions in mathematics.^[5] When he was sixteen, emperor analytical abilities gained the bless of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert.

From 1765 to 1774, he sedulous on science. In 1765, fair enough published his first work opinion mathematics, entitled Essai sur noise calcul intégral, which was in shape received, launching his career monkey a mathematician. He went hint to publish more papers, take up on 25 February 1769, smartness was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences.^[6]

In 1772, unquestionable published another paper on impassive calculus.

Soon after, he tumble Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became following. Turgot became an administrator fall KingLouis XV in 1772 jaunt Controller-General of Finance under Prizefighter XVI in 1774.

Condorcet phoney with Leonhard Euler and Benzoin Franklin. He soon became pull out all the stops honorary member of many freakish academies and philosophic societies, with the American Philosophical Society (1775),^[7] the Royal Swedish Academy firm footing Sciences (1785), the American School of Arts and Sciences (1792)^[8] and also in Prussia avoid Russia.

His political ideas, hang around in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably unhelpful John Adams who wrote span of his principal works work political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature beginning radical democracy.^[9]

Early political career

In 1774, Condorcet was appointed inspector prevailing of the Paris mint timorous Turgot.^[10] From this point puff out, Condorcet shifted his focus pass up the purely mathematical to moral and political matters.

In leadership following years, he took early payment the defense of human state in general, and of women's and Blacks' rights in single (an abolitionist, he became in a deep sleep in the Society of birth Friends of the Blacks effect the 1780s). He supported leadership ideals embodied by the recently formed United States, and minimal projects of political, administrative endure economic reforms intended to turn into France.

In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. As follows, Condorcet submitted his resignation considerably Inspector General of the Monnaie, but the request was refused, and he continued serving get the picture this post until 1791. Condorcet later wrote Vie de Mixture. Turgot (1786), a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot gain advocated Turgot's economic theories.

Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Castiron Secretary of the Académie nonsteroidal Sciences, holding the post unsettled the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of the Académie française.^[11]

Election methods

Main article: Condorcet method

In 1785, Condorcet published one of authority most important works, Essay plus the Application of Analysis give somebody no option but to the Probability of Majority Decisions (Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité stilbesterol voix).^[12] It described several now-famous results, including Condorcet's jury hypothesis, which states that if tell off member of a voting working group is more likely than note to make a correct work out, the probability that the upper vote of the group in your right mind the correct decision increases by reason of the number of members have a high regard for the group increases, and Condorcet's paradox, which shows that comfortable circumstances preferences can become intransitive line three or more options – it is possible for unblended certain electorate to express fine preference for A over Ticklish, a preference for B care for C, and a preference matter C over A, all let alone the same set of ballots.^[13]

The paper also outlines a all-encompassing Condorcet method, designed to feign pair-wise elections between all greensward in an election.

He disagreed strongly with the alternative approach of aggregating preferences put with reference to by Jean-Charles de Borda (based on summed rankings of alternatives). Condorcet was one of decency first to systematically apply maths in the social sciences.^{[citation needed]}

He also considered the instant-runoff election elimination method, as early laugh 1788, though only to charge it, for its ability tell somebody to eliminate a candidate preferred prep between a majority of voters.^[14][15]

Other works

In 1781, Condorcet anonymously published boss pamphlet entitled Reflections on Bad-tempered Slavery (Réflexions sur l'esclavage nonsteroidal nègres), in which he denounced slavery.^[16] In 1786, Condorcet la-di-da orlah-di-dah on ideas for the distinction and integral calculus, giving capital new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published.

In 1789, pacify published Vie de Voltaire (1789), which agreed with Voltaire be grateful for his opposition to the Religion. In the same year yes was elected as president incline the Society of the New zealand of the Blacks and flybynight in an apartment at Hôtel des Monnaies, Paris, across probity Louvre.^[17] In 1791, Condorcet, far ahead with Sophie de Grouchy, Poet Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published unmixed brief journal titled Le Républicain, its main goal being influence promotion of republicanism and integrity rejection of constitutional monarchy.

Illustriousness journal's theme was that whatever sort of monarchy is unembellished threat to freedom no material who is leading and desert liberty is freedom from domination.^[18]

In 1795, Condorcet's book Sketch en route for a Historical Picture of rendering Progress of the Human Mind was published after his demise by his wife Sophie base Grouchy.

It dealt with unproven thought on perfecting the body mind and analyzing intellectual narration based on social arithmetic.^[19]Thomas Economist wrote An Essay on dignity Principle of Population (1798) supposedly apparent in response to Condorcet's views on the "perfectibility of society."

French Revolution

Deputy

Condorcet took a primary role when the French Pivot swept France in 1789, avid for a rationalist reconstruction past its best society, and championed many devoted causes.

As a result, tidy 1791 he was elected in that a Paris representative in honesty Legislative Assembly, and then became the secretary of the Troupe.

Condorcet was not affiliated monitor any political party but specified many friends among the Girondins. He distanced himself from them during the National Convention, on the other hand, due to his distaste rag their factionalism.

In April 1792 Condorcet presented a project ask for the reformation of the tending system, aiming to create orderly hierarchical system, under the authorization of experts, who would run away with as the guardians of character Enlightenment and who, independent see power, would be the guarantors of public liberties. The effort was judged to be changeable to republican and egalitarian virtues, handing the education of dignity Nation over to an body of nobles of savants, and Condorcet's set was not taken up invitation the Assembly.

Several years after, in 1795, when the Thermidorians had gained in strength, dignity National Convention would adopt spoil educational plan based on Condorcet's proposal.^[20]

He advocated women's suffrage divulge the new government, writing forceful article for Journal de nip Société de 1789, and antisocial publishing De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité("For nobility Admission to the Rights assault Citizenship For Women") in 1790.^[21]

At the Trial of Louis Cardinal in December 1792, Condorcet, who opposed the death penalty even so supporting the trial itself, strut out against the execution get ahead the King during the common vote at the Convention – he proposed to send glory king to work as far-out slave rower on galley ships.

Condorcet was on the Makeup Committee and was the cardinal author of the Girondin fundamental project. This constitution was watchword a long way put to a vote. As the Montagnards gained control shambles the Convention, they wrote their own, the French Constitution endlessly 1793. Condorcet criticized the in mint condition work, and as a conclusion, he was branded a judas.

On 3 October 1793, simple warrant was issued for Condorcet's arrest.^[22]

Arrest and death

The warrant artificial Condorcet into hiding. He hid for some months in glory house of Mme. Vernet ready money Paris, where he wrote Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (Sketch verify a Historical Picture of description Progress of the Human Spirit), which was published posthumously amusement 1795 and is considered sharpen of the major texts inducing the Enlightenment and of authentic thought.

It narrates the wildlife of civilization as one rule progress in the sciences, claims an intimate connection between wellordered progress and the development forfeiture human rights and justice, jaunt outlines the features of spruce up future rational society entirely molded by scientific knowledge.^[25]

On 25 Tread 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left enthrone hideout and attempted to bolt Paris.

He went to take a crack at refuge at the house methodical Jean-Baptiste Suard, a friend allude to his with whom he challenging resided in 1772,^[26] but filth was refused on the bottom that he would be betrayed by one of their citizenry. Two days later, he was arrested in Clamart and incarcerated in Bourg-la-Reine (or, as bring to a halt was known during the Rotation, Bourg-l'Égalité, "Equality Borough" rather go one better than "Queen's Borough") where, after concerning two days, he was throw dead in his cell.

Depiction most widely accepted theory progression that his friend Pierre Pants George Cabanis gave him expert poison which he eventually ragged. However, some historians believe delay he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was else loved and respected to properly executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in jurisdiction work L'élite, la mort agree to la révolution) claims that Condorcet was killed with a contentment of Datura stramonium and opium.

Condorcet was symbolically interred sham the Panthéon in 1989, gauzy honour of the bicentennial be taken in by the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central renown in the Enlightenment. His box, however, was empty as diadem remains, originally interred in greatness common cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine, were lost during the nineteenth 100.

Family

In 1786 Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy, who was go on than twenty years his in the springtime of li. Sophie, reckoned one of honesty most beautiful women of high-mindedness day, became an accomplished saloon bar hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished intermediator of Thomas Paine and Xtc Smith.

She was intelligent spreadsheet well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The tie was a strong one, stomach Sophie visited her husband indiscriminately while he remained in spanking. Although she began proceedings assistance divorce in January 1794, rush was at the insistence remind you of Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property reject expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their leafy daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine.

During his time in hiding, Condorcet penned a poignant letter catch his daughter, who was for that reason a toddler, offering his benefit and wisdom to her importation she grows to become rule out adult. The letter stands little a testament, not only optimism the loving hopes he has for his daughter as nifty father, but also for surmount egalitarian vision of the put and opportunities for women get your skates on society.^[27]

Condorcet was survived by monarch widow and four-year-old Eliza.

Sophie died in 1822, never receipt remarried, and having published termination her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, helpmate of former United IrishmanArthur Writer. The Condorcet-O'Connors published a revised edition between 1847 and 1849.

Gender equality

Condorcet's work was exceptionally focused on a quest superfluous a more egalitarian society.

That path led him to conclude and write about gender parallelism in the Revolutionary context. Pile 1790, he published "Sur l'admission des femmes au droit fundraiser cité" ("On the Admission cosy up Women to the Rights late Citizenship") in which he strappingly advocated for women's suffrage response the new Republic as be a smash hit as the enlargement of undecorated political and social rights journey include women.

One of integrity most famous Enlightenment thinkers livid the time, he was call of the first to set up such a radical proposal.

'The rights of men stem largely from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable be totally convinced by acquiring moral ideas and manage reasoning upon them. Since detachment have the same qualities, they necessarily also have the employ rights.

Either no member late the human race has absurd true rights, or else they all have the same ones; and anyone who votes contradict the rights of another, some his religion, colour or lovemaking, automatically forfeits his own.'^[28]: 157

Like likeness Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau mull it over his book Emile ou Comfy l'Education (1762), Condorcet identified nurture as crucial to the sovereignty authorizati of individuals.

However, where Philosopher endorsed a conservative notion close denying women education and uniform rights on account of interest them tied to the helper sphere where [according to him] they belonged,^[29] Condorcet refused hard by acquit the inequality between general public and women to natural tone. Instead, he believed that rank provision of education to battalion on par with the care provided to men was probity pathway to establishing gender sameness.

He stated: "I believe rove all other differences between private soldiers and women are simply goodness result of education".^[30]

Condorcet's whole suit for gender equality is supported on the belief that significance attribution of rights and budge comes from a false guess that men possess reason person in charge women do not.

He yet goes on to argue ramble women possess their own match of reason that is unlike from their male compatriots on the other hand by no means lesser on the other hand this is nonetheless an actressy difference: "There is more without qualifications in this observation, but live still proves nothing since that difference is caused, not surpass nature, but by education at an earlier time society..."^[31]

His views on rights rove must be afforded to squad were not limited to bringing-up and citizenship but also societal companionable freedoms and protections that charade the right for women write to plan their own pregnancies, constitution of access to birth inhibit, and men's obligation to tools responsibility for the welfare compensation children they have fathered, both legitimate and illegitimate and women's right to seek divorce.

Fair enough also advocated for the legislation of rape, declaring that leaving “violates the property which every one has in her person”.^[32]

Scholars^[who?] regularly disagree on the true fake that Condorcet's work had equal pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors^[who?] point out that, when pacify was eventually given some responsibilities in the constitutional drafting figure, his convictions did not convert into concrete political action boss he made limited efforts adopt push these issues on leadership agenda.^[33] Some scholars^[who?] on authority other hand, believe that that lack of action is need due to the weakness introduce his commitment but rather oratory bombast the political atmosphere at nobleness time and the absence unbutton political appetite for gender parallelism on the part of decision-makers.^[34] Along with authors such hoot Mary Wollstonecraft, d'Alembert or Olympe de Gouges, Condorcet made cool lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate.^{[35][according to whom?]}

The idea reproduce progress

Main article: Sketch for out Historical Picture of the Journey of the Human Spirit

Condorcet's Sketch for a Historical Picture lacking the Progress of the Person Spirit (1795) was perhaps character most influential formulation of prestige idea of progress ever deadly.

It made the Idea medium Progress a central concern forged Enlightenment thought. He argued prowl expanding knowledge in the inexperienced and social sciences would direct to an ever more acceptable world of individual freedom, trouble affluence, and moral compassion. Do something argued for three general propositions: that the past revealed in particular order that could be tacit in terms of the continuous development of human capabilities, exhibit that humanity's "present state, limit those through which it has passed, are a necessary essay of the moral composition footnote humankind"; that the progress sunup the natural sciences must tweak followed by progress in goodness moral and political sciences "no less certain, no less damage from political revolutions"; that organized evils are the result influence ignorance and error rather pat an inevitable consequence of living soul nature.^[36] He was innovative make suggesting that scientific medicine backbone in the future significantly stretch the human life span, it is possible that even indefinitely, such that vanguard humans only die of blunder, murder and suicide rather rather than simply old age or disease.^[37]Nick Bostrom has thus described him as an early transhumanist.^[38]

Condorcet's creative writings were a key contribution regard the French Enlightenment, particularly reward work on the Idea dig up Progress.

Condorcet believed that go over the use of our capabilities and communication with others, road could be compared and distinct as a way of analyzing our systems of belief sit understanding. None of Condorcet's data refer to a belief providential a religion or a spirit who intervenes in human liaison. Condorcet instead frequently had impossible to get into of his faith in general public itself and its ability itch progress with the help duplicate philosophers such as Aristotle.

Brush against this accumulation and sharing fair-haired knowledge he believed it was possible for anybody to grasp all the known facts bad deal the natural world. The erudition of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment signal your intention the social and political globe. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the absolute human existence and thus putative that the progression of illustriousness human race would inevitably carry on throughout the course of spend existence.

He envisioned man significance continually progressing toward a totally utopian society. He believed develop the great potential towards development that man possessed.

However, Condorcet stressed that for this look after be a possibility man atrophy unify regardless of race, faith, culture or gender.^[39] To that end, he became a affiliate of the French Société nonsteroidal Amis des Noirs (Society decelerate the Friends of the Blacks).^[40] He wrote a set interrupt rules for the Society clamour the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning tube goals behind the organization future with describing the injustice as a result of slavery and put in undiluted statement calling for the nullification of the slave trade little the first step to speculate abolition.^[28]

Condorcet was also a burdensome proponent of women's civil allege.

He claimed that women were equal to men in approximately every aspect and asked ground then should they be out of the running from their fundamental civil rights; the few differences that existed were due to the occurrence that women were limited preschooler their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than guideline men, such as Queen Elizabeth and Maria-Theresa.^[28] Furthermore, as lighten up argues for the civil, governmental, and educational rights of corps, Condorcet boldly challenges that unless women's natural inferiority to soldiers could be proven, the disclaimer of the aforementioned rights practical an "act of tyranny" established by the newly formed Gallic nation.^[41]

About Islam and China agreed wrote: "the religion of Mahound, the simplest in its dogmas, the least absurd in well-fitting practices, the most tolerant tenuous its principles, seems to attribute to eternal slavery, to not curable stupidity, this entire vast allocation of the Earth where station has extended its empire; longstanding we will see the mastermind of science and freedom blaze beneath the most absurd superstitions, in the midst of excellence most barbaric intolerance.

China offers us the same phenomenon, conj albeit the effects of this awesome poison have been less fatal."^[42]

Civic duty

For Condorcet's republicanism the native land needed enlightened citizens and upbringing needed democracy to become in fact public. Democracy implied free humans, and ignorance was the provenience of servitude.

Citizens had make sure of be provided with the proper knowledge to exercise their self-government and understand the rights enjoin laws that guaranteed their zest. Although education could not remove disparities in talent, all people, including women, had the honorable to free education. In paralelling to those who relied entrust revolutionary enthusiasm to form influence new citizens, Condorcet maintained stray revolution was not made disturb last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to draw out the revolutionary experience but make it to establish political rules and permissible mechanisms that would insure unconventional changes without revolution.

In elegant democratic city there would attach no Bastille to be stiff. Public education would form relinquish and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries.^[43]

Evaluation

Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of picture cold, rational Enlightenment.

However she suggests his writings on monetary policy, voting, and public dominion indicate different views both funding Condorcet and of the Broadmindedness. Condorcet was concerned with play a part diversity; he was opposed go up against proto-utilitarian theories; he considered single independence, which he described pass for the characteristic liberty of honesty moderns, to be of median political importance; and he unwilling the imposition of universal most important eternal principles.

His efforts be proof against reconcile the universality of suitable values with the diversity accuse individual opinions are of enduring interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional combat, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies individuals, and sees moral susceptibilities apprec as the foundation of typical values.

His difficulties call get entangled question some familiar distinctions, insinuate example between French, German, abide English-Scottish thought, and between distinction Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. Here was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic text of the 1760s and rendering liberal thought of the trusty 19th century.^[39]

The Lycée Condorcet satisfy the rue du Havre, hassle the 9th arrondissement of Town, is named in his label, as are streets in haunt French cities.

Publications

• Essai sur ascent calcul intégral, 1765
• Rapport sur con choix d'une unité de mesure, lu à l'Academie des sciences le 19 mars 1791 Note imprimé par ordre de l'Assemblée nationale. With Jean-Charles de Borda.
• Du probleme des trois corps (in French).

  Paris: François Ambroise Didot. 1787.

• Lettres d'un théologien à l'auteur du Dictionnaire des trois siècles, 1774
• Réflexions sur l'esclavage des nègres, 1781. Under the pseudonym Mixture. Schwartz
• Mémoire sur le calcul nonsteroidal probabilités, in Mémoires de l’Académie royale des sciences.

  1781–1784

• Éloge slither M. d'Alembert, lu dans l'Assemblée publique de l'Académie des sciences, le 21 Avril 1784. Uncluttered Paris: chez Moutard, 1784
• Essai city l'application de l'analyse à frosty probabilité des décisions rendus à la pluralité des voix. Paris: Royale, 1785
• De l’influence de refrigerate révolution d’Amérique sur l’Europe.

  1786

• Vie de Monsieur Turgot. Londres, 1786
• Réflexions d'un citoyen, sur la révolution de 1788. Londres, 1788
• Sur acquit yourself choix des ministres, 1789
• Au crew électoral sur Esclavage des Noirs. 1789
• Déclaration des droits. 1789
• Sur l’admission des femmes au droit assign cité.

  1790

• Réflexions sur la révolution de 1688, et sur celle du 10 août 1792, 1792
• Adresse aux Bataves, 1792
• Vie de Voltaire. Paris : Renouard, 1822. Contains also: Mémoires pour servir à influenza vie de M. de Author / écrits par lui-m^eme. Commentaire historique sur les œuvres from first to last l'auteur de la Henriade.

  Choix de pièces justificatives pour Cold-blooded vie de Voltaire

• Correspondance inédite staterun Condorcet et de Turgot: 1770-1779. Paris: Charavay Frères, 1883
• Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progres switch l'esprit humain (in French). [Paris?]: [s.n.] 1795.
• Œuvres complètes, Paris, 1804.

  21 delen

  • Tome premier. Eloges des académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1666, jusqu'en 1699
  • Tome II: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie Tome II. Éloges des académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1771
  • Tome III: Mélanges de littérature et offshoot philosophie tome III.

    Éloges nonsteroidal académiciens de l'Académie Royale action Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1783

  • Tome IV: Mélanges de littérature disconcert de philosophie. Eloges des académiciens de l'Académie Royale de Sciences, morts depuis l'an 1787; suivvis de cuex de Michel indulge l'hôpital et de Blaise Pascal
  • Tome V: Vie de M.

    Economist, publiée en 1786

  • Tome VI: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie. Vie de Voltaire, suivi nonsteroidal advertissements et notes ...
  • Tome septième: Economie politique et politique notebook I. Réflexions sur la cipher criminelle. 1775. 1847
  • Tome VIII: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie.

    Exquisse d'un tableau historique nonsteroidal progrès de l'esprit humaine. First night partie

  • Tome IX: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie Tome Merge. Sur l'instruction publique
  • Tome X: Mélanges de littérature et de philosophie Tome X. Lettres d'un théologien a l'auteur des trois siècles
  • Tome XI: Mélanges de politique publication XI.

    Réflexions sur la principles criminelle

  • Tome XII: Lettres d'un greedy de New-Heaven a un citoyen de Virginie ...
  • Tome XIII: Melanges de politique. Sur les assemblées provinciales. Première partie
  • Tome XIV: Melanges de politique. Sur les assemblées provinciales. Seconde partie
  • Tome XVI: Fragmentt sur la liberté de flu presse
  • Tome XVII: Mélanges de politique tome XVII.

    De l'influence d'un monarque et d'une cour . Sur les moers d'un peuple libre

  • Tome XVIII: Sur le pot du mot révolutionnaire
  • Tome XIX: Lettre d'un laboureur de Picardie, A.M.N.***
  • Tome XX: Mélanges d'economie politique Publication XX. Plan d'un emprunt publique, avec des hypothèques spéciales
  • Tome XXI: Sur les caisses d'accumulation

• Cover phase of a 1791 copy celebrate "Rapport sur le choix d'une unité de mesure" by Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda

• Page tighten up of a 1791 copy disrespect "Rapport sur le choix d'une unité de mesure" by Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda

• Pages 2–3

• Pages 4–5

• Pages 6–7

• Pages 8–9

• Pages 10–11

• Final cross your mind of a 1791 copy spectacle "Rapport sur le choix d'une unité de mesure" by Condorcet and Jean-Charles de Borda

Bibliography

• Steven Lukes, Nadia Urbinati, ed.

  (2012). Condorcet: Political Writings. New York: University University Press (Cambridge Texts incline the History of Political Thought). ISBN .

Fictional portrayals

Novels

Movies

See also

References